During academic proofreading, you may notice sentences that are grammatically correct but still leave questions unanswered.
“The groups were different.” Different in what way?
“The method was good.” Good for which purpose?
“The results prove the theory.” Does the evidence really support “prove”?
Choosing a more precise word can help. That does not necessarily mean choosing a longer word. It means selecting a word that describes your method, finding, or interpretation accurately.
Here are 25 academic words worth knowing, with examples and advice on when to use them.
Words for describing what you did
1. Examine
Use examine when you study something closely. It is useful for stating a research aim without promising a particular result.
Less precise:
“This paper looks at recruitment practices.”
More precise:
“This paper examines recruitment practices across three departments.”
The revised sentence also identifies the setting. The verb alone cannot provide all the details.
2. Compare
Use compare when you consider similarities or differences between specified things.
Less precise:
“We studied the two feedback methods.”
More precise:
“We compared completion rates under the two feedback methods.”
Name what you compared: scores, experiences, procedures, or another feature.
3. Assess
Use assess when you evaluate something against a question, measure, or criterion.
Less precise:
“We checked the questionnaire.”
More precise:
“We assessed whether participants understood the questionnaire items.”
“Assess” should lead to a clear explanation of what you measured and how.
4. Estimate
Use estimate when you calculate an approximate value or use data to infer a quantity.
Less precise:
“We found the population prevalence.”
More precise:
“We estimated population prevalence from the survey data.”
An estimate is not an exact population value. Report relevant uncertainty where appropriate.
5. Identify
Use identify when your analysis finds or distinguishes a particular feature.
Less precise:
“The interviews showed some problems.”
More precise:
“The interview analysis identified three recurring barriers to participation.”
Use the number and description only if your analysis supports them.
Words for reporting findings accurately
6. Report
Use report to clarify that the information comes from an account, response, or published source.
Less precise:
“Participants were more confident.”
More precise:
“Participants reported greater confidence.”
This distinction matters when confidence was self-reported rather than independently assessed.
7. Observe
Use observe when you describe something recorded or noticed in the study.
Less precise:
“There was a pattern.”
More precise:
“We observed higher attendance during the final two weeks.”
An observation does not automatically explain why the pattern occurred.
8. Differ
Use differ when things are not the same in a specified respect.
Less precise:
“The two samples were different.”
More precise:
“The two samples differed in age distribution.”
Name the difference. Do not imply statistical significance unless the relevant analysis supports it.
9. Vary
Use vary when something changes or differs across people, places, conditions, or time.
Less precise:
“Participants gave different answers.”
More precise:
“Reported travel time varied across recruitment sites.”
“Vary” describes differences but does not explain their cause or size.
10. Associate
Use associate, often in “was associated with”, when reporting a relationship without automatically claiming cause and effect.
Too strong for evidence showing only a relationship:
“Frequent attendance increased confidence.”
More suitable:
“Frequent attendance was associated with higher confidence.”
Use this wording only when your analysis supports the relationship. An association does not establish which factor influences the other.
Words for explaining how you interpret evidence
11. Suggest
Use suggest when the evidence points towards an interpretation but does not establish it conclusively.
Too strong:
“These findings prove that scheduling affects participation.”
More cautious:
“These findings suggest that scheduling may affect participation.”
Cautious wording still needs supporting evidence. “Suggest” cannot rescue an interpretation unrelated to your findings.
12. Indicate
Use indicate when something serves as evidence or a sign of a particular condition.
Vague:
“The response rate was worrying.”
More specific:
“The response rate indicates that most invited students did not complete the survey.”
Be careful when moving beyond the direct observation. A low response rate alone does not establish the size or direction of nonresponse bias.
13. Support
Use support when evidence lends weight to an explanation, claim, or hypothesis.
Too strong:
“The results establish the proposed explanation.”
More measured:
“The results support the proposed explanation.”
Explain which results provide support. Evidence can support an explanation while leaving alternatives open.
14. Reflect
Use reflect when discussing what an observation may represent or arise from.
Too definite:
“The attendance difference was caused by timetable restrictions.”
More cautious, if the explanation remains uncertain:
“The attendance difference may reflect timetable restrictions.”
“Reflect” can imply an explanation, so use it carefully. If restrictions were not investigated, present them as a possibility.
15. Distinguish
Use distinguish when separating concepts, categories, or explanations.
Less precise:
“We considered confidence and writing quality.”
More precise:
“We distinguished self-reported confidence from assessed writing quality.”
This helps readers understand that related outcomes are not necessarily interchangeable.
Words for making the scope clear
16. Specific
Use specific when a point applies to an identified context, group, or purpose.
Too broad:
“The findings explain student participation.”
More limited:
“The findings describe participation within this specific programme.”
Naming the programme, population, and setting is usually more useful than adding “specific” on its own.
17. Relevant
Use relevant when something has a clear connection to the question or task.
Vague:
“We collected useful background information.”
More precise:
“We collected background information relevant to the recruitment question.”
Explain the connection where it is not obvious. “Relevant” should not simply replace “useful”.
18. Consistent
Use consistent, often followed by “with”, when findings or accounts are compatible with one another.
Too strong:
“Our findings confirm the earlier study.”
More measured:
“Our findings are consistent with those of the earlier study.”
Check that the studies examine comparable outcomes. Consistency does not mean the earlier explanation has been proven.
19. Preliminary
Use preliminary for findings from an early stage of work or an initial analysis.
Vague:
“These are early results.”
More specific:
“These preliminary results come from the first recruitment phase.”
Explain what remains unfinished. Do not use “preliminary” just because a study is small.
20. Applicable
Use applicable when discussing whether a method, finding, or recommendation fits a particular setting.
Too broad:
“The procedure can be used everywhere.”
More limited:
“The procedure may be applicable in settings with similar equipment and staffing.”
State the conditions. A method that works in one setting may need adaptation elsewhere.
Words for describing quality and limitations
21. Reliable
Use reliable when discussing consistency, such as agreement between ratings or the stability of a measure.
Vague:
“The coding was good.”
More precise:
“We assessed the reliability of the coding using agreement between the two coders.”
If you call coding or a measure reliable, explain the evidence. Reliability is not the same as validity.
22. Valid
Use valid when discussing whether evidence supports an interpretation or intended use of a measure.
Vague:
“The questionnaire measured the right thing.”
More precise:
“We examined evidence supporting the validity of interpreting the questionnaire scores as writing confidence.”
Validity depends on the interpretation, purpose, and context. Avoid assuming that a familiar questionnaire is valid for every use.
23. Feasible
Use feasible when something can practically be done under stated conditions.
Vague:
“The programme worked.”
More precise, if you mean it could be delivered:
“The programme was feasible to deliver within the available staffing and time.”
Feasibility is not effectiveness. A programme can be practical to run without producing the intended outcome.
24. Limited
Use limited to describe a restriction, and explain what is restricted.
Vague:
“The study had weaknesses.”
More precise:
“The study’s ability to assess change was limited by the absence of a baseline measure.”
This tells the reader how the limitation affects the conclusion.
25. Uncertain
Use uncertain when the evidence leaves an estimate, explanation or conclusion unresolved.
Vague:
“The result was not clear.”
More precise:
“The direction of the relationship remains uncertain because both variables were measured at the same time.”
Name what is uncertain and why. Uncertainty is useful information for your reader.
How to use these words during academic proofreading
Do not replace words simply because a new version sounds more academic. Start by checking the meaning.
Ask what you actually did
Did you examine, compare, assess, or estimate?
These verbs describe different activities. Choose the one that matches your method.
Check how the information was obtained
Did participants report an experience? Did researchers observe behaviour? Was a value estimated from a sample?
Your wording should make that distinction visible.
Match the interpretation to the evidence
“Suggest”, “support”, and “confirm” are not automatic substitutes for one another. Consider what your study can establish and what remains open.
Explain words that make a judgement
If you describe something as reliable, valid, feasible, or applicable, give the reader the basis for that description.
Try a precision check on one paragraph
Choose a paragraph from your draft and circle words such as:
Good, different, useful, worked, showed, proved.
For each one, ask:
- What exactly do I mean?
- Which method or result supports this wording?
- Can I name the outcome, comparison, or condition?
- Would a different word make the claim too strong?
Sometimes the best revision uses one of the words above. Sometimes it needs a number, a definition, or an extra explanation instead.
Academic proofreading is most useful when it improves both the English and the accuracy of the message.
Want help checking the rest of your draft?
Download the free Academic English Proofreading Checklist for 25 checks with examples covering grammar, clarity, word choice, paragraph flow and punctuation.
Marlene
Better English Writing